The religious history of mankind can be divided into two distinct periods. In the first period, which occupies the major portion of this history, the Almighty directly interacted with the inhabitants of this earth by selecting certain personalities as his representatives. To them, He revealed His guidance for the benefit of mankind. They were deputed by Him to fully explain and elucidate the basic truths. Although these truths are inherently known by a heedful person through the testimony of his conscience and intuition, the Merciful Allah supplemented this arrangement by appointing His representatives from among mankind to remind them of these truths. Over a period, which extends to several thousand years, numerous personalities were chosen for this purpose. In religious parlance, they are called Anbiyā (Prophets). The last of these personalities was Muhammad (sws). With his demise in 632 AD, the institution of Nabuwwat (Prophethood) was terminated and this first period of history was brought to an end.

Today we are living in the second period of history, which is to continue until the end of this world. In this period, divine interaction through appointed representatives no longer takes place. It seems that once the Prophets of Allah were able to establish the intellectual superiority of monotheism over polytheism, the Almighty brought to an end this mighty institution since its implications regarding the trial and test of its immediate addressees were far reaching.

The first period of history has a certain feature that is wholly and solely specific to it. The Qur’ān, a Book which belongs to this first period, mentions this feature. As per this feature1, the judgement which is going to take place in the Hereafter is visually substantiated in this period during the lifetime of certain Anbiyā2 (Prophets) elevated to the higher cadre of Rusul3 (Messengers).

Owing to this feature, certain directives of the Qur’ān  are specific to this first period and cannot be extended to the next period. This of course does not mean that they lose their relevance to the second period. It only means that while they cannot be applied in this second period, their application in the first period has already afforded mankind with certain testimonies which have a profound bearing on his attitude towards life in this second period. It is imperative that the basis of the directives of the Qur’ān be understood in order to appreciate which of them is confined to the first period and which is applicable to both. It is by not differentiating between these directives that many misconceptions have arisen in understanding the Qur’ān.

This article shall attempt to first outline this all-important feature of the first period. Next the details of its application in the period of the last Prophet and Messenger, Muhammad (sws), shall be outlined. In the third section, various directives that belong specifically to the first period and that have been erroneously related to the second period shall be delineated. The article shall end on a summary of the fundamental premise and on some conclusions drawn from the overall discussion.

Precisely put, the topics to be discussed in this article are:

A. The Judgement: A Basic Feature of the Age of Rusul

B. Details of ‘The Judgement’ in Muhammad’s Period

C. Directives Specific to the Age of the Last Rasūl

D. Concluding Remarks

Here is a gist of what is presented under these topics

A. The Judgement: A Basic Feature of the Age of Rusul

In this opening section, it is established that the basic feature of the age of Rusul is that their addressees are rewarded or punished in the this very world so that this judgement can become a visual testimony to the reward and punishment which is to take place in the Hereafter.

B. Details of ‘The Judgement’ in Muhammad’s Period

The details of the Judgement that took place in the era of the last Rasūl are outlined.

C. Directives Specific to the Age of the Last Rasūl

It is shown on the basis of the above mentioned feature that the following directives of Islam are specific to the age of the last Rasūl and his companions and cannot be related to later Muslims:

1. Apostasy

2. Waging War against Non-Muslims

3. Dāru’l-Harb / Dāru’l-Islām Classification

4. Dhimmī Status of Non-Muslim Minorities

5. Enmity with Non-Muslims

6. Greeting non-Muslims in an Inferior Way

7. Certain Doom for non-Muslims in the Hereafter

8. Prohibition of Inheritance from non-Muslim Parents

9. The Superiority of Muslim Blood

10. Prohibition of Non-Muslims from entering the Batullāh

11. Assassination of Non-Muslims

12. The Political Supremacy of Islam

13. Status of Muslims as the Best Community

D. Concluding Remarks

The attitude which Muslims and non-Muslims must adopt towards each other on the basis of the fundamental premise is discussed.

We now turn to the details.

A. The Judgement: A Basic Feature of the Age of Rusul

Belief in the Hereafter is a fundamental tenet of the Islamic faith. The real message of the Qur’ān is that this world is transitory in nature and shall one day give way to an everlasting world where man shall be rewarded or punished on the basis of his attitude in this world regarding certain basic truths.

It is evident from the Qur’ān (2:62)4 that these basic truths are:

1. Belief in the One and Only God.

2. Belief that a person shall be held accountable on the Day of Judgement.

3. Righteous deeds based on the concepts ordained in human nature as well as on those specified by the Prophets of Allah.

It is in the interest of man to remain heedful to the reward and punishment which will take place on the Day of Judgement on the basis of these basic truths. However, since man tends to forget this reality, the Merciful Allah has made several arrangements to constantly remind him of this profound reality. Among these, perhaps the most powerful one is that the whole episode of blessing the righteous with reward and meting out punishment to the disobedient has been made a visually observed reality for man. Visual evidence, it is said, is the ultimate form of evidence since the observation of something is the greatest proof of its existence – seeing is believing.

In other words, the basic feature of this period is that the reward and punishment that is to take place in the Hereafter is substantiated visually by the Almighty through the agency of his Rusul so that mankind may always remain heedful to this reality. The court of justice which will be set up for every person on the Day of Judgement was set up for the nations of Rusul in this world so that the latter could become a visual testimony to the former. The Qur’ān at numerous instances has used this argument for the reward and retribution of the Hereafter. In Sūrah Hāqqah, for example, it says:

The Inevitable! What is the Inevitable? What do you know what the Inevitable is? It is the Pounding One which the ‘A%d and the Thamūd denied. As for the Thamūd, they were destroyed by a calamity that exceeded all bounds and the Ad by a storm, fierce and violent. He let loose this [storm] on them for seven nights and eight days to ravage them. You would have seen them lying overthrown as though they were hollow trunks of palm-trees. So do you now see any of them? And the same crime was committed by Pharaoh and those before him and by the overturned settlements also such that they disobeyed the Rasūl of their Lord [sws]. So He gripped them with an intensifying grip. [Similarly, as a consequence of denying Noah (sws)] when [the storm blew over and] the flood rose high it was We who carried you upon the ark to make this [account of your ancestors] a reminder for you and that retaining ears may retain it . (69:1-12)

These verses show that nations of Rusul who denied the accountability of the Hereafter were wiped out because of this attitude.

In the following paragraphs, this visual testimony to the Hereafter witnessed in the age of every Rasūl, which has been mentioned at numerous instances in the Qur’ān, will be explained.

A study of the Qur’ān reveals that initially the basic truths were evident to man. The guidance provided to Adam (sws) was enough in this regard. However, after sometime people began to differ with one another about these truths. When it became evident that the differences that had arisen could not be resolved, the Almighty selected a whole series of His representatives to resolve these differences:

Mankind was one single nation, and God sent messengers with glad tidings and warnings; and with them He sent the Book with truth to judge between people in matters wherein they differed; but the People of the Book, after the clear signs came to them, did not differ among themselves, except through selfish contumacy. God by His Grace guided the believers to the truth concerning that wherein they differed. (2:213)

Each of these representatives was called a Nabī. As already pointed out, the Almighty elevated some of his Anbiyā to a higher position called Rasūl.5 It is in the lifetime of the Rusul that He provided mankind with the visual testimony of the Hereafter. It is to be noted that this testimony is specific to the Rusul. Anbiyā who are not Rusul do not provide this testimony.

Before we discuss this testimony in detail, some important characteristics associated with the institution of Risālah (Messengerhood) that are evident from the Qur’ān need to be understood.

1. Important Characteristics of the Institution of Risālah

a. The Basic Criterion of Selection

The Almighty selects a Rasūl on the basis of His all embracing wisdom and sagacity. The basic criterion is that people who have a very exceptional moral character are chosen for this great task.6 They are ones who lead unblemished lives before they are called to serve Allah. Human attributes are at a pinnacle in their personalities. Honesty and integrity, nobility and honour, fortitude and courage, sympathy and compassion, perseverance and endurance find themselves epitomized in their character. Their inclination towards good and aversion to evil is exemplary. They are an embodiment of what they teach, and practice what they preach. Their deeds do not contradict their words. Friend and foes alike acknowledge their character. The Qur’ān refers to this aspect of their lives as ‘Bayyinah’(a clear sign):

Can those who are on a clear sign from their Lord, and then a witness also comes to them from Him and before this, the Book of Moses is already present as a guide and a mercy and those who are without any insight be equal? (11:17)

The above quoted verse is about Muhammad (sws). About Noah (sws), the Qur’ān says:

He said: ‘O my People! Tell me if I am on a clear sign from my Lord, and moreover He also specially blessed me with His mercy, but that the mercy has been obscured from your sight? Shall we compel you to accept it when you are averse to it? (11:28)

About Sālih (sws), the Qur’ān says:

He said: ‘O my People! Tell me if I am on a clear sign from my Lord, and, moreover, He also blessed me with His mercy – who then can help me against Allah if I were to disobey Him? (11:63)

About Shu‘ayb (sws), the Qur’ān says:

He said: ‘O my People! Tell me if I am on a clear sign from my Lord, and moreover He also specially blessed me with His sustenance [pure and] good as from Himself? I wish not, in opposition to you, to do that which I forbid you to do. (11:88)

In these verses, a mention of ‘Bayyinah’ (clear sign) precedes the mention of Wahī (revelation) for which the words ‘witness’, ‘mercy’ and ‘pure sustenance’ are used. This shows that it is only after those chosen to become Messengers have polished and refined their inner-selves that they become the recipients of divine revelation. In other words, as these verses indicates, it is only after they display magnificence and splendour in their character that the Almighty chooses them as His Messengers.

b. Protection of the Divine Message

Since on the acceptance or rejection of the divine message delivered by the Rusul depends the fate of their addressees, the Almighty ensures that the message is delivered in its original shape. He protects and guards them from faltering in delivering the divine message. As a result, in their capacities as divine appointees, they present to their addressees the very message of Allah without any adulteration and alteration. The Qur’ān says:

As for those whom He chooses as His messenger [they can say nothing of their own] because He guards them from behind and from the front that He may know if they have delivered the messages of their Lord; and He surrounds whatever is around them and keeps count of all their things. (72:16-28)

The Almighty also protects His Rusul from being harmed by their people when they are delivering the truth to them:

Before them the People of Noah denied and the confederates after them; and every people tried to seize their Rasūl and disputed by means of vanities therewith to condemn the truth: but it was I Who seized them! And how terrible was My requital! (40:5)

Also, since the Messengers are to set examples for mankind, even a slight slip on their part in their capacity as Messengers is corrected by the Almighty. Of course, these oversights pertain to zeal for virtue and are not related to vice in any way. For example, Jonah (sws) was checked for migrating from his people before the Almighty told him to do so (21:87). Moses (sws) was checked by the Almighty for reaching the mount of Sinai before the appointed time (20:82-5). Muhammad (sws) was checked by Allah for ignoring a blind person (80:1-11) as well as on certain occasions when he was too gracious to certain hypocrites by excusing them from Jihād (9:43).

c. Divine Assistance

The Qur’ān says that besides being equipped with outstanding qualities of head and heart and besides being the recipients of divine revelation, the Rusul are bestowed with certain other manifest signs to corroborate further their status as divine appointees in order to stir their nations out of their deep slumber.

Abraham (sws) was saved from being burnt in the fire when his people tried to burn him:

So the only answer of [Abraham’s] people was that they said: ‘Slay him or burn him.’ But God did save him from the fire. Verily, in this are signs for people who believe. (29:24)

Moses (sws) was given nine signs. The Qur’ān mentions the two prominent among them:

Now [O Moses] throw your rod! But when he saw it moving [of its own accord] as if it had been a snake, he turned back in retreat, and retraced not his steps: ‘O Moses!’ [it was said] ‘fear not: truly, in My presence, those called as Messengers have no fear -- but if any have done wrong and have thereafter substituted good to take the place of evil, truly, I am Oft-forgiving, Most Merciful.’ ‘Now put your hand into your bosom, and it will come forth white without stain [or harm]: [these are] among the nine signs [you will take] to Pharaoh and his people: for they are a people rebellious in transgression.’ (27:10-12)

The Bible records in detail the other signs. (See Exodus Chaps 7-11)

Jesus (sws), the last Rasūl of the Israelites, was given many miracles to awaken his people:

And he [-- Jesus –] told the progeny of Israel: ‘I have come to you with a sign from your Lord in that I make for you out of clay, as it were, the figure of a bird, and breathe into it, and it becomes a bird by God’s leave: and I heal those born blind, and the lepers, and I bring the dead to life by God’s leave; and I declare to you what you eat, and what you store in your houses. Surely, therein is a sign for you if you did believe. (3:49)

With this background in mind about some important characteristics of the institution of Risālah, we shall now take a look at the basic objective of this institution and then in the next section see how the preaching endeavour of a Rasūl gradually culminates in the realization of this objective.

2. The Objective and its Justification

In words of the Qur’ān, the basic objective of the Rusul of Allah is to decide the fate of their people in such a manner that if these people deny their respective Rusul, then they are subdued in this very world.

And the disbelievers said to their Rusul: ‘Be sure we shall drive you out of our land, or you shall return to our religion.’ But their Lord inspired [this message] to them [-- the Rusul –]: ‘Verily We shall cause the wrong-doers to perish! ‘And verily We shall cause you to abide in the land, and succeed them. This is for those who feared the time when they shall stand before My tribunal and those who feared My warnings. (14:9-14)

It has been ordained that the Almighty and His Rusul will always prevail:

Indeed those who are opposing Allah and His Prophet are bound to be humiliated. The Almighty has ordained: ‘I and My Rusul will always prevail’. Indeed Allah is mighty and powerful. (58:20-21)

People who profess faith in their respective Rusul are rewarded in the Herein and promised success in the Hereafter:

As to those who believe and do righteous deeds, they have for them the Gardens of Paradise for their entertainment wherein they will dwell forever. (18:107)

The Qur’ān says that besides being equipped by outstanding qualities of head and heart and besides being the recipients of divine revelation, the truth becomes totally manifest in their personalities so that no one is left with any excuse to deny it. In the words of the Qur’ān, this is called Shahādah ‘alanās (bearing witness to the truth before people). Consequently, the Almighty has referred to this status of the Prophet (sws) in the Qur’ān in the following words:

To you [O People of the Quraysh!] We have sent forth a Rasūl as witness to the truth before you just as we sent a Rasūl to the Pharaoh. (73:15)

It is to be appreciated that what authorises a Rasūl to decide the fate of his nation is the stark reality that good and evil are elucidated with ultimate clarity and people who accept evil do so not because of any confusion but because of their own stubbornness. So much so that when they are punished for this unbecoming attitude they admit their fault and as a last resort to escape punishment even offer to accept faith – but then to no avail:

But when they saw Our punishment they said: ‘We believe in Allah – the One God and we reject the partners we associated with Him.’ But their professing faith when they actually saw our punishment would not be able to benefit them. (40:82-5)

When the Pharaoh became certain that he would drown, this is what he had said:

I believe that there is no god except Him Whom the children of Israel believe in. I am of those who submit to Allah. (10:90)

This shows that truth becomes manifest to the disbelievers and their punishment is a perfect act of justice because they themselves admit their sins. The greatest feature of the Day of Judgement is that on that Day also, the sinners will admit all their faults and repent when they would see what lies in store for them:

O assembly of Jinn and men! Did not there come to you messengers from amongst you setting forth to you my signs and warning you of the meeting of this Day of yours? They will say: ‘we bear witness against ourselves.’ It was the life of this world that deceived them. So against themselves will they bear witness that they rejected faith. (6:130)

They will say: ‘Our Lord! Twice did you give us death and twice have you given us life! Now have we recognised our sins: is there any way out [of this]?’ (40:11)

It is because of the similarity of acknowledgement of sins that virtually no difference remains between the justice administered in this world to the nation of a Rasūl and the one which will be administered on the Day of Judgement. This shows that a Rasūl has the perfect justification to punish his people after they have denied him.

3. Realization of the Objective

A Rasūl’s mission passes through various phases before it culminates in achieving the above mentioned objective. During these phases, the truth is gradually unveiled to the addressees. With the special help and assistance of the Almighty, the Rusul remove misconceptions which may surround the basic issues of religion and vehemently say that if people do not accept these truths they shall be doomed in this world and in the Hereafter too. Those who profess faith in their Rasūl are promised success in this world and in the Hereafter, and those who knowingly deny these truths are punished in various degrees so that this whole episode can become an evidence of the reward and punishment that will take place on similar grounds in the Hereafter, as has been pointed out earlier. Various stages pass in the mission of a Rasūl before believers are rewarded and punishment is meted out to those who reject him.7

Sūrah Ibrāhīm summarizes the struggle of Rusul in the following words:

Has not the story reached you [O people!] of those who went before you? -- of the People of Noah, and ‘A%d, and Thamūd? -- And of those who came after them? None knows them but God. To them came Rusul with clear signs; but they put their hands up to their mouths, and said: ‘We do deny [the mission] on which you have been sent, and we are really in suspicious doubt as to that to which you invite us.’ Their Rasūl said: ‘Is there a doubt about God, the Creator of the heavens and the earth? It is He who invites you in order that He may forgive you your sins and give you respite for a term appointed!’ They said: ‘You are no more than human like ourselves! You wish to turn us away from the [gods] our fathers used to worship: then bring us some miracle.’ Their Rusul said to them: ‘True, we are humans like you, but God does grant His grace to such of His servants as He pleases. It is not for us to bring you a miracle except as God permits. And in God let all men of faith put their trust. No reason have we not to put our trust in God. Indeed, He has guided us to the ways we [follow]. We shall certainly bear with patience all the hurt you may cause us. For those who put their trust should put their trust in God. And the disbelievers said to their Rusul: ‘Be sure we shall drive you out of our land, or you shall return to our religion.’ But their Lord inspired [this message] to them [– the Rusul--]: Verily, We shall cause the wrong-doers to perish! And verily We shall cause you to abide in the land, and succeed them. This is for those who feared the time when they shall stand before My tribunal and those who feared My warnings. (14:9-14)

We will now take a look at some important details regarding retribution and migration – two important constituents of a Rasūl’s preaching endeavour.

a. The Retribution

It is evident from the Qur’ān that the retribution of the disbelievers normally takes two forms, depending upon the situation that arises.

If a Rasūl has very few companions and he has no place to migrate from his people and attain political power, then the Rasūl and his companions are sifted out from their nation by the Almighty and made to migrate to a safe place. Their nation is then destroyed through various natural calamities like earthquakes, typhoons and cyclones. The Qur’ān says:

Each one of them We seized for their crime: of them, against some We sent a violent tornado with showers of stones; some were caught by a mighty blast; some We sunk in the earth; and some We drowned in the waters. (29:40)

The ‘Ad, nation of the Rasūl Hūd (sws), the Thamūd nation of the Rasūl Sālih (sws) as well as the nations of Noah (sws), Lot (sws) and Shu‘ayb (sws) were destroyed through such natural disasters and calamities when they denied their respective Rusul as is mentioned in various sūrahs of the Qur’ān.8 In the case of Moses (sws), the Israelites never denied him. The Pharaoh and his followers however did. Therefore, they were destroyed.

The Prophet Jonah’s people accepted faith and were saved from punishment:

Why was there not a single township which professed faith so that its faith should have profited it, -- except the people of Jonah? When they believed, we removed from them the penalty of ignominy in the life of the present, and permitted them to enjoy their life for a while. (10:98)

In the second case, a Rasūl is able to win a fair amount of companions and is also able to migrate to a place where he is able to acquire the reins of political power through divine help. In this case, a Rasūl and his companions subdue their nation by force, and execute them if they do not accept faith. The nation of a Rasūl is then given further respite during which the Rasūl starts to purge and cleanse the people who accept faith and organises them for a final onslaught with the forces of evil. He also strengthens his hold and authority in the land. Once his companions are ready for an armed conflict, these addressees are given a final ultimatum and then attacked. The forces of a Rasūl are destined to triumph and humiliate his enemies. The punishment, which in the previous case descended from the heavens, this time emanates from the swords of the believers. It was this situation which had arisen in the case of Muhammad (sws). His opponents were destroyed by the swords of the Muslim believers until at the conquest of Makkah, the remaining accepted faith. (Details follow in the next section).

Consequently, in both these cases, the established law of Allah called the Sunnah of Allah by the Qur’ān is enforced on the addressees of a Rasūl, who are wiped out as a nation: 

Indeed those who are opposing Allah and His Rasūl are bound to be humiliated. The Almighty has ordained: ‘I and My Rusul will always prevail’. Indeed, Allah is mighty and powerful. (58:20-21)

The only exception to this rule are the Israelites who denied Jesus (sws). They were not wiped out as a nation because, being the People of the Book, they were basically adherents to monotheism. Their humiliation took the form of constant subjugation to the followers of Jesus (sws) till the day of Judgement, as referred to by the following verse:

Behold! God said: ‘O Jesus! I will give death to you and raise you to Myself and cleanse you from those have denied; I will make those who follow you superior to those who reject faith till the Day of Judgement. Then shall you all return to me, and I will judge between you on the matters wherein you dispute’. (3:55)

b. The Migration

Two important things must be noted about the migration of a Rasūl in both the previously mentioned cases:

Firstly, it signals the end of his nation. It means that all that could have been done to call them to accept faith has been done. Before migration, as long as a Rasūl remains among his people, they are protected from any punishment and given respite due to his presence. So, when the pagan Arabs demanded from the Prophet Muhammad (sws) to bring the punishment he had been threatening them with, they were told:

But God was not going to send them a punishment whilst you are amongst them. (8:33)

Secondly, a Rasūl is not authorised to make the decision of migration for himself since only the Almighty knows when a particular people has been given enough time to accept the truth. A Rasūl must keep to his task of warning his people in spite of bitter opposition until he is informed by the Almighty Himself that the time is up for them. The Prophet Jonah (sws), called Zu’l-Nūn (Companion of the Fish) by the Qur’ān, was reprimanded by the Almighty when he decided on his own to migrate from his people: 

And remember Zu’l-Nūn, when he departed in wrath thinking that We will not hold him responsible! But he cried through the depths of darkness: ‘There is no god but You; glory to You. I was indeed wrong!’ (21-87)

The Prophet Muhammad (sws) was told to exercise patience until the decree of Allah arrived and not be like Jonah (sws):

So wait with patience for the command of your Lord, and be not like the Companion of the Fish, -- when he cried out in agony. (68:48)

On the other hand, when Abraham (sws) argued with the Almighty that the nation of his nephew, the Prophet Lot (sws), be given more respite, he was told that none among the righteous were left in it. While the Qur’ān (11:74) makes a passing reference to this, the Bible gives the following details:

Then Abraham approached him and said: ‘Will you sweep away the righteous with the wicked? What if there are fifty righteous people in the city? Will you really sweep it away and not spare that place for the sake of the fifty righteous people in it? Far be it from you to do such a thing – to kill the righteous with the wicked, treating the righteous and the wicked alike. Far be it from you! Will not the Judge of all the earth do right?’ The Lord said: ‘If I find fifty righteous people in the city of Sodom, I will spare the whole place for their sake.’ Then Abraham spoke up again: ‘Now that I have been so bold as to speak to the Lord, though I am nothing but dust and ashes, what if the number of the righteous is five less than fifty? Will you destroy the whole city because of five people?’ ‘If I find forty-five there’, He said: ‘I will not destroy it’. Once again he spoke to him: ‘What if only forty are found there?’ He said: ‘For the sake of forty, I will not do it.’ Then he said: ‘May the Lord not be angry, but let me speak. What if only thirty can be found there?’ He answered: ‘I will not do it if I find thirty there.’ Abraham said: ‘Now that I have been so bold as to speak to the Lord, what if only twenty can be found there?’ He said: ‘For the sake of twenty, I will not destroy it.’ Then he said: ‘May the Lord not be angry, but let me speak just once more. What if only ten can be found there?’ He answered: ‘For the sake of ten, I will not destroy it.’ (Genesis 18:23-32)

B. Details of ‘The Judgement’ in Muhammad’s(sws) Period

We now examine the details of the characteristic feature of the institution of Risālah outlined above the last time it was observed: that is in the period of Muhammad (sws), the last Rasūl. However, before we embark on this, it is to be noted that since with the Prophet Muhammad (sws) this institution was terminated, and thereafter salvation of the whole mankind was made to depend on professing faith in him9, the Almighty made arrangements that the last Rasūl (sws) be known to people even before he arrived.

Consequently, divine books mention in detail his characteristics much before he graced this world so that people could have no difficulty in recognizing them. A whole group of messengers proclaimed his arrival much before he came. They departed from this world after they took a pledge from their followers to remain the custodians of this news. His arrival became a two thousand year old tradition. The prophecy of his arrival was carried from Abraham (sws) to Jesus (sws) by all the illustrious Prophets of Allah.10 The arrival of the last Rasūl (sws) was known to the Idolaters of Arabia as well. Not only were they aware of it through the People of the Book, with whom they had deep relations, but the news of the arrival of the last Rasūl Muhammad (sws) was an orally transmitted tradition among them as well:

Suhaylī has mentioned in al-Rawd al-Unuf that Ka‘ab Ibn Lu’iyy was the first person who gathered people on the day of ‘Urūbah. After the advent of Islam, ‘Urūbah was renamed as Jumū‘ah, and he was the first one to call it by this name. The Quraysh held a gathering around him on this day. He would address them and remind them of the advent of the Prophet Muhammad (sws). He would inform them that Muhammad (sws) would be among his progeny. He would direct them to follow him and profess faith in him. He would recite [the following couplet]:

Ya Laytanī shāhidun fahwā’a da‘watihī

Idhā Qurayshun tubaghghī al-haqqa khidhlānā11

(I wish I could witness the contents of his preaching when the Quraysh will vehemently deny the truth.)

So Muhammad (sws) too, like the previous Rusul, explained the basic truths in their ultimate form through the special help of the Almighty. When it became evident that his addressees were deliberately denying him, they were punished in varying degrees to prove to mankind for the last time that a similar court of justice shall be set up on the Day of Judgement, and the reward and punishment given by the Almighty through His Prophets (sws) to their addressees in their collective capacity in this world shall one day be given to all people who knowingly deny such basic truths. The believers were promised supremacy over the disbelievers in this world and great success in the Hereafter. The Idolaters were given the options of accepting faith or facing death, and the People of the Book were given the options of accepting faith or remaining subservient and paying Jizyah. As already pointed out, this difference seems to stem from the fact that the Idolaters subscribed to polytheism even after being convinced of its baselessness, while the People of the Book were basically monotheistic though they were involved in certain polytheistic practices.

We now take a somewhat detailed look at the events which ensued in the Prophet Muhammad’s lifetime and culminated in the above mentioned fate of his addressees.

1. Muhammad’s Mission

a. Phase 1: The Admonition

In the fortieth year of his life, the Prophet Muhammad (sws) was summoned by the Almighty to serve Him. Makkah at that time was the social and cultural centre of Arabia. It was its central city. So, in accordance with the established practice of the Almighty of sending a Rasūl to the central city of a land, Muhammad (sws) was called upon to begin his endeavour in this city:

Thus have We sent by inspiration to you an Arabic Qur’ān that you may warn the mother of cities and all around her; – and warn [them] of the Day of Assembly of which there is no doubt: [when] some will be in the Garden, and some in the Blazing Fire. (42:7)

In Makkah, where the Prophet (sws) spent about thirteen years of his propagational endeavour, his addressees were basically the Idolaters12 – the descendants of the Prophet’s great ancestor: the Prophet Ismā’īl (sws). However, the People of the Book (the Jews and the Christians) were also addressed at various instances. Besides these two distinct pockets of opponents, there were the Munāfiqūn (the hypocrites) who were non-existent in Makkah and emerged in Madīnah as the Islamic message started to gain momentum.

Muhammad (sws) bore witness to the truth before all these three groups and refuted their evil beliefs. He revived various Abrahamic practices and rituals and cleansed them of corruptions added by polytheists, and delineated the basic truths of monotheism and accountability in the Hereafter on the basis of the Sharī‘ah brought by him.

The real debate with the Idolaters concerned their polytheistic beliefs and religious innovations (bid‘āt). They were repeatedly asked to give up their religion of idolatry since it had no grounds. It was only the Almighty who could have told them that He had associated with Him certain other deities. Without the sanction of the Almighty, they had no means to know about such details for themselves. Consequently, when they claimed that polytheism was revealed to them by the Almighty Himself, the Qur’ān called this a vicious a lie:

Soon shall We cast terror into the hearts of the disbelievers because they joined companions with Allah for which He had sent no authority; their abode will be the Fire; and evil is the home of the wrongdoers! (3:151)

These are nothing but names which you have devised – you and your fathers – for which Allah has sent down no authority [whatsoever]. They follow nothing but conjecture and what their own souls desire! – even though there has already come to them guidance from their Lord! (53:23)

The Idolaters were asked to believe in the Qur’ān if they wanted to succeed in the Hereafter. They were directed to ask the People of the Book if they had any doubts about this Book. The righteous among them would vouch for it:

Those to whom We have given the Book rejoice at what has been revealed to you: but there are among the clans those who reject a part thereof. (13:36)

They were told that they have been blessed with the Qur’ān lest they might present the excuse that they never received a book from the Almighty as was received by the Jews and Christians before them:

And this is a Book which We have revealed as a blessing; so follow it and be righteous that you may receive mercy, lest you should say: ‘The Book was sent down to two peoples before us, and for our part, we remained unacquainted with all that they learned by assiduous study or lest you should say: ‘If the Book had only been sent down to us, we should have followed its guidance better than they.’ Now then has come unto you a clear [sign] from your Lord, -- and a guide and a mercy. Then who could do more wrong than one who rejected God’s signs, and turned away therefrom? (6:155-157)

Similarly, the People of the Book were asked to desist from their attitude of hostility and antagonism and to honour the covenant they had made of professing belief in the final Rasūl – someone whose name was mentioned in their very books:

Fulfil the Covenant of Allah when you have entered into it, and break not your oaths after you have confirmed them: indeed you have made Allah your witness; for Allah knows all that you do. And be not like the woman who breaks into untwisted strands the yarn she has spun after it has become strong. Nor take your oaths to practise deception between yourselves, lest one party should be more numerous than another: for Allah will test you by this; and on the Day of Judgement He will certainly make clear to you [the truth of] that wherein you disagree. (16:91-2).

He [-- the Almighty --] said: ‘With My Punishment I visit whom I will; But My mercy extends to all things. That [mercy] I shall ordain for those who do right, and practise regular charity, and those who believe in Our signs – Those who are following the Messenger, the unlettered Prophet, whom they find mentioned in the Torah and in the Injīl – for he commands them what is just and forbids them what is evil; he allows them as lawful what is good [and pure] and prohibits them from what is bad [and impure]; he releases them from their heavy burdens and from the yokes that were upon them. So those who believe in him, honour him, help him, and follow the Light which is sent down with him – it is they who shall prosper. (7:156-7)

Initially, he could muster very little support from his tribe in favour of his message. Most people of Makkah rejected his call and only a few youth of the city accepted it. The hostility shown by the chiefs of Makkah was so severe that most people reckoned that it would only be a matter of days before this newly founded faith would reach a disastrous end. The Prophet (sws) and his companions were put through severe physical torture and mental affliction. Such was the extent of the persecution suffered by the Prophet (sws) that for many years he had to confine his endeavour to his near relatives. However, after many years of persistent struggle, when it became evident that the people of Makkah were denying the Prophet (sws) due to sheer obstinacy, the Almighty asked him to dissociate himself from these people.

b. Phase II: The Renunciation

After thirteen long years of preaching, the Prophet (sws) failed to muster to any substantial support from his people. He was told by the Almighty that the truth had been unveiled to the people of Makkah (and as a result to the whole of Arabia) in its ultimate form. They had knowingly denied it and therefore were now prone to punishment. In the meantime, the city of Madīnah had come under the influence of the Prophetic message and its chiefs readily accepted Islam. The Prophet (sws) was directed to migrate to Madīnah and leave his people. Sūrah Kāfirūn records this declaration of renunciation in the following words:

Declare you [O Prophet!]: O Disbelievers! I shall worship not that which you worship. Nor will you ever worship [alone] that which I worship. Nor ever before this was I prepared to worship that which you worshipped. Nor were you ever prepared to worship that which I have been worshipping. [So, now] to you your religion and to me mine. (109:1-6)

This is the only instance in the Qur’ān in which the disbelievers have been directly addressed in such words13. These words are not meant to condemn or chide them; they actually convey their true behaviour. After thirteen long years of preaching and exhortation, the leaders of the Quraysh had refused the calls of sense and reason. Their denial was based on nothing but stubbornness in spite of the fact that the truth had been revealed to them in its purest form by no other personality than the Prophet (sws) himself. It was highly probable that a further insistence by the Prophet (sws) for the acceptance of the truth would have led them to harm him physically. Consequently, the Prophet (sws) at this stage addressed them by a name which aptly described their deeds, and on divine bidding, departed from them. The last verse of the sūrah, it must be appreciated, is not an expression of tolerance; it expresses renunciation on the part of the Prophet (sws) and a warning to the disbelievers that they must now get ready to face the judgement as a consequence of their obdurate denial.

c. Phase III: The Judgement

Following are the details of this Judgement when it finally took place:

(1) The Reward

After the Prophet (sws) migrated to Madīnah, the people of Arabia on whom the truth had already been unveiled were given a further chance to contemplate upon the consequences of their denial. Here in Madīnah, the believers were prepared to launch a final assault on the disbelievers.

Say to the desert Arabs who lagged behind: ‘You shall be summoned [to fight] against a people given to vehement war: then shall you fight or they shall accept Islam’. (48:16)

And fight them on until there is no more persecution and there prevails the religion of God everywhere; but if they cease, verily God is seeing all that they do. (8:39)

They were told that their opponents would never be able to triumph over them:

If the disbelievers should fight you, they would certainly turn their backs; then would they find neither protector nor helper. Such has been the practice approved of God already in the past: no change will you find in the practice of God. (48:22-23)

They were given glad tidings of success in the following words:

God has promised, to those among you who professed belief and did righteous deeds that He will of a surety grant them political authority in this land as He granted it to those before them; that he will establish their religion – the one which He has chosen for them; and that He will change [their state], after the fear in which they [lived], to one of security and peace. (24:55)

They were told that the Almighty wants to test their commitment to faith as well as by this armed struggle:

Fight them, and Allah will punish them by your hands, and cover them with shame, and help you [to victory] over them, and heal the breasts of the believers. (9:14)

Or think you that you shall be abandoned as though Allah did not know those among you who strive with might and main, and take none for friends and protectors except Allah, His messenger, and the believers? But Allah is well-acquainted with all that you do. (9:16)

The sincere among them who were guilty of some blemishes were forgiven after some punishment:

[He turned in mercy also] to the three whose matter was deferred to such a degree that the earth seemed constrained to them for all its spaciousness, and their souls seemed straitened to them – and they perceived that there is no fleeing from Allah but to Him. Then, He turned to them that they might repent: for Allah is Oft-Returning, Most Merciful. (9:118)

The weak among them were told that if they repented and mended their ways and remained steadfast, then hopefully the Almighty will forgive them also.

Others [there are who] have acknowledged their wrong-doings: they have mixed an act that was good with another that was evil. Perhaps, God will turn to them [in mercy]: for God is Oft-Forgiving, Most Merciful. (9:102).

(2) The Punishment

After the believers had been prepared for a final onslaught against the disbelievers, the stage was set to pronounce the judgement against the addressees of the Prophet Muhammad (sws). It was the last time that such an act of retribution would take place in this world. Never again would mankind witness the application of this mighty institution. Sūrah Tawbah describes in detail the events which took place when the last court of justice was set up for the three major opponents: the Idolaters, the People of the Book, the Hypocrites. The sūrah is divided into three sections. In the first, the Idolaters of Arabia; in the second, the People of the Book, and, in the third, the Hypocrites are dealt with.

(a) For the Idolaters

Initially, the Idolaters were given an ultimatum of four months after which their humiliation would start:

This is a declaration of renunciation from Allah and His Messenger to these Idolaters with whom you had made contracts. So move about in the land  for four months but you should know that you are not beyond the grasp of Allah and Allah shall indeed humiliate those who reject Him. (9:1-2)

In the second phase, this announcement was repeated for those people among these Idolaters who had not accepted faith until the day of Hajj-i-Akbar (9th Hijra). They were given a final extension by a proclamation made in the field of ‘Arafāt on that day. According to the proclamation, this final extension would end with the last day of the month of Muharram, during which they had to accept faith and show this acceptance by offering prayers and paying Zakāh or face execution at the end of that period. The Qur’ān says:

When the forbidden months are over, slay the Idolaters wherever you find them. Seize them, surround them and everywhere lie in ambush for them. But if they repent from their wrong beliefs and establish regular prayers and pay Zakāh, then spare their lives. God is Oft-Forgiving and Ever Merciful. (9:5)

There were two exceptions to this:

Firstly, tribes who had honoured their contracts were provided immunity during the period of the contract. However, once the contract period ended, they would also be treated similarly:

But this action shall not be taken against those Idolaters with whom you have entered into alliance and who did not breach the contract nor aided anyone against you. So fulfil your engagements with them to the end of their term, for Allah loves the pious. (9:4)

Secondly, if a person asked for asylum to understand the teachings of Islam, he was to be given this asylum and no action was to be taken against him until this period was over.

If anyone among the Idolaters ask you for asylum, grant it to him so that he may hear the Word of Allah and then escort him to where he can be secure. That is because they are men without knowledge. (9:6)

(b) For the People of the Book

After the Idolaters, the fate of the People of the Book is stated in the sūrah. Since it had become evident that their denial too was based on sheer obstinacy, Muslims were asked to fight them into subjugation unless they accepted the superiority of the Muslims by paying Jizyah:

Fight those who believe not in Allah or the Last Day, nor hold that forbidden which has been forbidden by Allah and His Messenger, nor acknowledge the Religion of Truth, from among the People of the Book, until they pay the Jizyah after being subdued and live in submission. (9:29)

A final charge sheet of their crimes was presented to them in the following words:

The Jews call ‘Uzayr son of God, and the Christians call Christ son of God. That is a saying from their mouth; [In this] they but imitate what the disbelievers of old used to say. Allah’s curse be on them: how they are deluded away from the truth. They take their priests and their anchorites to be their lords in derogation of Allah, and [they take as their Lord] Christ, the son of Mary; yet they were commanded to worship but One God: there is no god but He. Praise and glory to Him: [far is He] from having the partners they associate [with Him]. (9:30-31)

(c) For the Hypocrites

In the third section of the sūrah, the Hypocrites are taken to task and told that if they do not desist from their hostile behaviour, they would meet their fate also:

They swear by Allah that they said nothing [evil], but indeed they uttered blasphemy, and they did it after accepting Islam; and they meditated a plot which they were unable to carry out: this revenge of theirs was only because of the blessings with which Allah and His Messenger had enriched the Muslims. If they repent, it will be best for them; but if they turn back [to their evil ways], Allah will punish them with a grievous penalty in this life and in the Hereafter. (9:74)

There are Hypocrites among the desert Arabs round you as well as among the Madīnah folk; they are obstinate in hypocrisy. You do not know them: We know them. Twice shall We punish them and in addition shall they be sent to a grievous penalty. (9:101)

2. Extension of Muhammad’s Mission

Muhammad (sws) directly bore witness to the truth before his companions as a group. Moral concepts were personified in these companions in the ultimate degree. They were a group of noble souls who graced this world and became embodiments of moral ideals in their collective capacity. They became the representatives of the truth and were called the ‘best community’ by the Almighty Himself:

You are the best of peoples, evolved for mankind, enjoining what is right, forbidding what is wrong, and truly believing in God. (3:110)

None other than the Almighty Himself selected these noble companions to carry on this task of Shahādah ‘ala al-nās (bearing witness to the truth before other nations of their times):

He has chosen you, and has imposed no difficulties on you in religion; it is the religion of your father Abraham. It is He Who has named you Muslims, both before and in this [Qur’ān]: [He chose you so that] the Rasūl may be a witness [to this religion] before you, and you be witnesses to this religion before non-Muslims [of your times]. (22:78)

Such was the nature of their endeavour that the Almighty announced that He is pleased with them: 

Allah is well pleased with them and they with Him. (98:7)

The Qur’ān uses the words Ummat-i-Wasat (the intermediate community) for the Companions. This use is very meaningful since they stood as a bridge between the Prophet Muhammad (sws) and the rest of the world of their times. As a bridge, it was their duty to communicate the religion they received from the Prophet (sws) to other people of the world:

Thus have We made of you an intermediate group so that you be witnesses [to this religion] before the nations, and the Rasūl be such a witness before you. (2:143)

Since these companions were called Shuhadā ‘ala al-Nās (witnesses to other peoples) in this verse and since, as a result, the truth had become personified in them their collective capacity, they too had the authority to punish those who knowingly denied the truth. Muhammad (sws) himself initiated their mission by writing letters to the various non-Muslim states of the world. These states were required to submit to Muslim authority by paying Jizyah if they wanted to remain on their religions or face the consequences of  war.

However, after the departure of the Companions, since no one enjoys the status of Shuhadā ‘ala al-Nās (witnesses of the truth to other peoples), the right to punish people for knowingly denying the truth can no longer be exercised.

C. Directives Specific to the Age of the last Rasūl

We shall now take a look at the directives which specifically belong to the age of the last Rasūl Muhammad (sws) and which have erroneously been extended to the second one. In other words, with the termination of the institution of Risālah, they cannot be applied in a period which is devoid of Rusul. The basic reason, as pointed out earlier, is that in the period of Rusul people who have knowingly denied the truth revealed by a Rasūl can be pinpointed while in other periods there is no means of ascertaining it. People about whom it is known that they have knowingly denied the truth are given this punishment in this very world14; their humiliation of course will continue in the next. No Muslim preacher is in a position to reveal the truth in a manner a Rasūl is able to, nor can he pinpoint who among his addressees is guilty of knowingly denying the truth. Only on the Day of Judgement will it now be known whether a particular person is a Kāfir or not. Consequently, all such directives which relate to people who knowingly deny the basic truths and who can be pinpointed for this denial are not related to this second period of history, which is without such personalities. In other words, these directives do not form part of the Sharī‘ah. They are a special class of directives that concern a divine scheme that specifically belonged to the age of Rusul. As pointed out earlier, this does not mean that they have no relevance today. In fact, they have a direct bearing on this second period as well: through their agency, mankind has been provided with the ultimate visual proof that retribution in the Hereafter is an indubitable reality.

In the following paragraphs, we shall examine the major directives which are specific to the first period of history in their direct application and which in no way can be applied to the second period.

The principle which has been kept in consideration in ascertaining these directives is that all of them relate to people about whom can be known that they have deliberately denied the truth.15

1. Apostasy

According to most Muslim jurists, a Muslim who leaves the folds of Islam is punishable by death. They base their verdict on the following Hadīth as narrated by Ibn Abbās in the following way:

Execute the person who changes his faith. (Bukhārī, Kitāb Istatābatu’l-Murtaddīn)

In their opinion, the ruling pronounced in this Hadīth is regarded to have a general application for all times upon every Muslim who renounces his faith from the times of the Prophet (sws) to the Day of Judgement.

It has been shown in the previous sections of this article that once the Idolaters of Arabia had knowingly denied the truth revealed to them by Muhammad (sws), they were sentenced to death because of this denial:

When the forbidden months are over, slay the Idolaters wherever you find them. Seize them, surround them and everywhere lie in ambush for them. But if they repent of their wrong beliefs and establish regular prayers and pay Zakāh, then spare their lives. God is Oft-Forgiving and Ever Merciful. (9:5)

The above quoted Hadīth is merely a statement of this law for the Arab Idolaters of the Prophet’s times. It has no application to any other people or nation. It does not even relate to the People of the Book of the Prophet’s times. The law for these Idolaters was to either accept faith or face extinction. Hence, it follows that if a person among the Idolaters after accepting faith reverted to his original state of disbelief, he had to face the same penalty. The following Hadīth is of similar meaning also:

I have been ordained to fight against these people until they testify to the oneness of God and assent to my prophethood, establish regular prayers and pay Zakāh. If they accept these terms, their lives will be spared except if they commit some other violation that entails their execution by Islamic law. (Bukhārī, Kitābu’l-Imān)

Consequently, apart from the Idolaters of Arabia of the Prophet’s times, it has no bearing upon any other person or nation.16

2. Waging War against Non-Muslims

It is generally held that Muslims must fight the polytheist nations as well as the Jews and Christians of today until they subdue them. It is further held that while the polytheist nations must be put to death if they do not accept faith, the Jews and Christians can be allowed to live on their religions if they submit to Muslim authority by paying Jizyah. The following verses are generally presented in support of this view:

Slay the Idolaters wherever you find them. Seize them, surround them and everywhere lie in ambush for them. But if they repent from their wrong beliefs and establish regular prayers and pay Zakāh, then spare their lives. God is Oft-Forgiving and Ever Merciful. (9:5)

Fight those who believe not in Allah or the Last Day, nor hold that forbidden which has been forbidden by Allah and His Messenger, nor acknowledge the Religion of Truth, from among the People of the Book, until they pay the Jizyah after being subdued and live a life of submission. (9:29)

It has been shown in the previous section of this article that these verses and other verses of similar meaning specifically pertain to the polytheists, the Jews and the Christians of the Prophet’s times. They had knowingly denied the truth and were as a result given this punishment.17 Today, in the absence of the Prophet (sws), it cannot be known whether people are knowingly denying it; therefore, no action can be taken against them. Muslims must continue to develop friendly relations with them and cordially invite them to Islam without threatening their existence or authority.

After the Prophet, his authorised companions carried on the mission against the major political powers of their times. This onslaught, it has been shown in the previous section, was specific to their status as witnesses to the truth, and their endeavour was basically a manifestation of a divine scheme. Consequently, the age old debate about whether Islam was spread through the sword or not should also be understood in this perspective. The companions of the Prophet (sws) in their collective capacity were only enforcing the implication of their status as witnesses to the religion of the truth. They were not spreading Islam; they were punishing people who had deliberately denied the truth.

Consequently, after them, as has been stated earlier, Muslims have no right to subdue nations and countries in the name of Islam18 or impose Jizyah upon them.

3. The Dāru’l-Islām / Dāru’l-Harb Classification

According to popular Islamic legal theory, a certain political classification exists in this world. According to this classification, lands where Muslims rule and the Islamic law prevails are known collectively as the Dāru’l-Islām (the Abode of Islam), and areas of the outside world, inhabited and also governed by non-Muslims constitute what is called the Dāru’l-Harb (the Abode of War). The basis of this classification is the theory of Jihād according to which the realm of Islam and the realms of unbelief are canonically in an obligatory and perpetual state of war, which will continue until the whole world either accepts the message of Islam or submits to the rule of those who bring it.

It has been shown above in (2) that this classification is specific to the age of the Prophet Muhammad (sws) and his worthy companions. Today, this classification no longer holds. Muslims do not have the authority to fight the rest of the world to make them accept Islam.

4. The Dhimmī Status of Non-Muslim Minorities

It is generally held that the non Muslim citizens of an Islamic state are of three categories regarding their citizenship in a state:

(i) Mu‘āhids, viz. those have come under an Islamic State on account of a treaty with it.

(ii) Dhimmīs, viz. those who have come under an Islamic State on account of being subdued in a battle.

(iii) Musta’mins, viz. non-Muslim residents of Dāru’l-Harb who temporarily stay in Dāru’l-Islām.

Since subduing non-Muslims by force is no longer permitted today, non-Muslims can only be of the first category. Dhimmis and Mustamins are categories of non-Muslims specific to the age of the Prophet (sws) and his Companions. All directives of Fiqh related to Dhimmīs consequently cannot be related to the non-Muslims of today. The Non-Muslim minorities of today living in Muslim countries can only be classified as Mu‘āhids. Keeping in view the general welfare of the state, through mutual consent, any contract can be made with non-Muslims of today regarding their rights. As such, all dealings with them should be according to the terms of the treaty concluded with them. Muslims have been bound by Islam to abide by these terms in all circumstances and to never violate them in the slightest way. Such violations are totally forbidden according to Islam, and, in fact, amount to a grave transgression. The Qur’ān says:

Keep [your] covenants; because indeed on the Day of Judgement you will be held accountable for them. (17:34)

The Prophet (sws) is reported to have said:

Beware! I myself shall invoke the justice  of  the  Almighty on the Day of Judgement against the person who oppresses and persecutes a Mu‘āhid, or reduces his rights, or burdens him [with responsibilities] he cannot bear, or takes something from him against his will. (Abū Dā’ūd: Kitābu’l-Jihād)

5. Enmity with Non-Muslims

Some people are of the view that on the basis of the following verses of the Qur’ān, Muslims should never make friends with non-Muslims; in fact, they should show hostility and be venomenous to them:

Believers should not make friends with the Kuffār against the interest of the believers. (3:28)

O believers do not make friends with the Kuffār against the interest of the believers. Do you wish to offer God an open argument against yourselves? (4:144)

Believers take not these Jews and the Christians for your friends. They are but friends to each other. And he amongst you who turns to them [for friendship] is of them. (5:51)

It is evident from these verses that the actual word used for the Jews and Christians is ‘Kuffār’. These Kuffār, as explained above, must not be confused with the non-Muslims of today. People become Kuffār after they deliberately reject the truth. So, no non-Muslim can be called a Kāfir in these times. Secondly, as is evident from these verses, even with such Kuffār, only that friendship is forbidden which is against the interest of the Muslims. Consequently, these verses cannot be related in any sense to the non-Muslims of today.

6. Greeting Non-Muslims in an Inferior Way

It is generally held that non-Muslims should not be greeted in the ceremonial way by saying Assalāmu ‘alaykum (peace be to you). It is argued that non-Muslims do not deserve this prayer. The following Hadīth is presented in support of this view:

When the People of the Book greet you, reply them by saying wa alaykum. (Bukhārī, Kitābu’l-Isti’dhān)

If all the texts of this Hadith are collected and analyzed, what comes to light is the fact that some among the People of the Book of the Prophet’s times used to mischievously twist their tongue in a swift manner and instead of saying the proper words of the salutation would say Assāmu ‘alaykum (death be to you), which when quickly pronounced sounded very near to the original words of Assalāmu ‘alaykum. It was to counter this devilish prank that the Muslims were directed to say: Wa ‘alaykum (to you too). It must be borne in mind that the Muslims were asked to give this particular reply only after the truth had been revealed in its ultimate form by the Prophet (sws) to the People of the Book after many years of propagation, and in spite of that they were not willing to submit to it. Had this ultimate stage not come, one can safely conclude that Muslims would never have been asked to reply with equally harsh words and would have continued to say the words: Assalāmu ‘alaykum, the best of prayers and the best of wishes.

Today no Muslim preacher can ever be in a position to say that the truth has been unveiled in its ultimate form. Therefore, he must continue his efforts of propagation all his life, and remain a well-wisher of all the non-Muslims of the world, and continue to greet them with Assalāmu ‘alaykum.

Consequently, the following Hadīth (which contains a similar directive) also relates specifically to the People of the Book of the Prophet’s times on whom the truth had been unveiled by the Almighty through His last Prophet (sws). It has no bearing with the People of the Book of our times:

Don’t initiate salutations to the Jews or the Christians, and force them to the narrowest of paths when one of them meets you on your way. (Muslim, Kitābu’l-Salām)

Even in the time of the Prophet (sws), before the non-Muslims of his times had become Kuffār by deliberately rejecting the truth, they too were greeted as Muslims were. In this period, the Prophet (sws) himself said Assalāmu ‘alaykum to the non-Muslims of his times. Uthāmah Ibn Zayd reports:

The Prophet (sws) once passed by a mixed gathering of the Muslims, the Idolaters and the Jews and said Assalāmu ‘alaykum to them. (Bukhārī, Kitābu’l-Jihād)

7. Certain Doom for Non-Muslims in the Hereafter

It is generally held that all non-Muslims will necessarily go to Hell. Verses like the following usually form the basis of this view:

The disbelievers among the People of the Book [Jews and Christians] and the Idolaters shall burn for ever in the fire of Hell. They are the vilest of all creatures. (93:1)19

Once again, it must be appreciated that these verses speak of the Jews and Christians and the Idolaters of the Prophet’s times, who had knowingly denied the truth.

As far as the non-Muslims of later times are concerned, they will meet this fate only if they knowingly deny a truth which reaches them and do not fulfil the requisites of their beliefs in the truths they come across. Those who do, shall go to paradise whether they are Muslims or non-Muslims.

It must also be appreciated that after Muhammad (sws) and his Companions have borne witness to the religion of truth in their times before the non-Muslims, it is now the duty of every non-Muslim to give a sincere thought to Prophethood of Muhammad (sws) and to the consequences of professing disbelief in him.

8. Prohibition of Inheritance from Non-Muslims

The following Hadīth is presented to contend that a Muslim convert cannot inherit from his non-Muslim parents. Similarly, non-Muslim children cannot be heirs to their Muslim parents:

A Muslim cannot be an heir to a Kāfir nor can a Kāfir to a Muslim’s. (Bukhārī, Kitābu’l-Farā’id)

It is evident from the verses of inheritance (4:11) that the right to obtain an inheritance is based on the underlying cause of aqrabu naf‘an (the most beneficial in kinship). This benefit is by nature present in parents, children, brothers, sisters, husbands, wives and other close relations. Hence, in normal circumstances, they will be considered the heirs to the legacy of a deceased. However, in certain unusual circumstances, if an absence of benefit in any of these relationships is diagnosed by sense and reason, the style and pattern of the verse demand that such a relative should not become an heir to the legacy. Therefore, in such cases, if someone is deprived from his share, it will perfectly be in accordance with the purport of the verse, to which its words so clearly testify.

In view of this, the Prophet (sws) is reported to have said the above quoted words about the Idolaters and the People of the Book of Arabia. In other words, after these factions were left with no excuse to deny the truth which had been unveiled to them in its ultimate form by the Prophet Muhammad (sws), their enmity and hostility became very clear. Consequently, the benefit of kinship between them and the Muslims stood completely severed. Hence, they could not inherit from one another.

This directive, obviously, has no bearing on the non-Muslims of today.

9. The Superiority of Muslim Blood

The following Hādith is presented as evidence to support the view that a Muslim will not be killed if he is guilty of killing a non-Muslim whereas the reverse will be carried out:

No Muslim will be killed in Qisās of an Idolater. (Dārmī: Kitābu’l-Dīyāt )

Here again it is to be noted that after Muhammad’s migration to Madīnah, the Idolaters had lost their right to live after having knowingly denied him. Consequently, this Hadīth and other Ahadīth of similar meaning are solely related to the Idolaters of the Prophet’s times.20 This directive has no bearing on the non-Muslims of today.

Consequently, today if a Muslim is guilty of murdering a non-Muslim, he shall certainly be sent to the gallows if he is not forgiven by the family of the slain.

10. Prohibition of Non-Muslims from Entering the Baytullāh

On the basis of the following verse, some people opine that non-Muslims cannot enter Muslim places of worship, in particular the Baytullāh:

Believers, verily these Idolaters are unclean [of faith]. So let them not after this year of theirs approach the Sacred Mosque. (9:28)

It is evident from this verse that the real reason of this prohibition is polytheism which has been called impure and unclean. Consequently, in the opinion of  this writer, this prohibition stands analogously extended to people who have adopted polytheism as their religion, for example some sects of Hinduism. It cannot be extended to the adherents of such monotheistic religions as Judaism and Christianity. Though the followers of Christianity are involved in idolatrous practices yet they never condone to idolatry as the real religion. Obviously, there is a world of difference between getting involved in idolatrous practices while considering them to be non-idolatrous and becoming followers of idolatry itself.

Moreover, as is evident from the verse quoted above, this prohibition for polytheists is just for the Holy Ka‘bah which is the ultimate centre of monotheism. They can visit other mosques if they like.

11. Assassination of Non-Muslims

One of the arguments on the basis of which it is held that blasphemy is punishable by death is the assassination of certain non-Muslims of the Prophet’s times who had allegedly blasphemed against Allah and the Prophet (sws). If all these cases are analysed, it comes to light that this conclusion is incorrect.

Once again we are faced with a situation in which the people assassinated are those who had already become worthy of punishment after the Prophet’s migration to Madīnah. While most of them were given more time and respite to contemplate on the consequences of their denial, those among them who were spreading disorder and anarchy in the society were punished by death after they were repeatedly warned on their highly antagonising behaviour. In this regard, some scandal mongers and hypocrites from among the People of Madīnah were also put to death. While addressing the Prophet (sws), the Qur’ān says:

If the hypocrites and those in whose hearts is a disease and the scandal-mongers of Madīnah do not desist, We shall certainly stir you up against them and their days in living in the city with you will be numbered. They shall have a curse on them and wherever found they shall be seized and slain mercilessly. (33:60-61)

This law, as mentioned before, is specifically meant for the Rusul of Allah only and cannot be extended for general application.

12. The Political Supremacy of Islam

It is held by some Muslim scholars of contemporary times that it is the religious obligation of every Muslim to strive for the supremacy of Islam in his country by all the means he can. They term it as an ‘Islamic Revolution’ and present the following verse in support of this view:

It is He Who has sent his Rasūl with Guidance and the Religion of Truth that he may proclaim it over all religions, even though the Idolaters may detest [this]. (61:9)

On the basis of the phrase ‘all religions’, it is understood that the followers of Islam must struggle for its dominance in their respective countries and territories.

An analysis of the context of this verse shows that it also belongs to the class of directives that relate to the established practice of the Almighty regarding His Rusul. It is to be noted that al-Mushrikīn (the Idolaters) is used in this verse. The Qur’ān uses this word specifically for the Idolaters of Arabia of the Prophet’s times. As a result, ‘all the religions’ in the conjugate clause can only mean all the religions of Arabia at that time. Therefore, the verse has no bearing on Muslims after the times of the Prophet (sws).

We have already quoted the following verse in the previous section and shown that Muslims were promised the sovereignty in the land of Arabia after the Idolaters of Arabia had knowingly denied the basic truth revealed to them by the Prophet Muhammad (sws).

God has promised, to those among you who professed belief and did righteous deeds that He will, of a surety grant them political authority in this land as He granted it to those before them; that he will establish their religion – the one which He has chosen for them. (24:55)

This was part of the divine law according to which a Rasūl always triumphs over his nation.

Those who show hostility to Allah and His Rasūl are bound to be humiliated. The Almighty has ordained: ‘I and my Rusūl will always prevail’. (58:20)

Muhammad (sws) was also informed that he would triumph over his nation. He and his companions were told that they would have to fight the Idolaters of Arabia until the supremacy of Islam was achieved there and that these Idolaters should be informed that if they do not desist from their evil ways they too would meet a fate no different from those of the other nations of Rusul:

Say to the disbelievers that if now they desist [from unbelief], their past would be forgiven them; but if they persist, the punishment of those before them is already [a matter of warning for them]. And fight them on until there is no more persecution and there prevails the religion of God everywhere; but if they cease, verily God is seeing all that do. If they refuse, be sure that God is your Protector – the best to protect and the best to help. (8:38-40)

Consequently, striving to achieve the political supremacy of Islam is no religious obligation of a Muslim. The verses from which this obligation has been construed specifically relate to the Rusul of the Almighty.21

13. Status of Muslims as the Best Community

It is generally held that Muslims are superior to the people of other religions. The following verse is contended to be the basis of this ‘self-righteousness’:

You are the best of peoples, evolved for mankind, enjoining what is right, forbidding what is wrong, and truly believe in God. (3:110)

It is to be appreciated that this verse specifically pertains to the Companions of Muhammad (sws) who bore witness to the religion of truth before the non-Muslim nations of their times. It has already been explained before that the Almighty had chosen them for this task:

He has chosen you, and has imposed no difficulties on you in religion; it is the religion of your father Abraham. It is He Who has named you Muslims, both before and in this [Qur’ān]: [He chose you so that] the Rasūl may be a witness [to this religion] before you, and you be witnesses to this religion before non-Muslims. (22:78)

The following verse also mentions their obligation:

Thus have We made you an intermediate group so that you be witnesses [to this religion] before the nations, and the Rasūl be such a witness before you. (2:143)

The context of 3:110 must be understood in the light of 2:143 and 22:78. The reason why the companions have been called the Best Community in 3:110 is that after Muhammad (sws) himself had borne witness to the religion of truth before them, the truth had manifested itself in their collectivity. Since this testimony by Muhammad (sws) was confined to them and not later Muslims, the title ‘Best Community’ is specifically meant for the Companions of Muhammad (sws) and does not relate to other Muslims.

D. Concluding Remarks

In this section, the fundamental premise shall first be summarized and then the correct attitude which Muslims and non-Muslims should adopt in the light of this premise shall be discussed

i. Summarizing the Fundamental Premise

In order to make the reward and punishment that is going to take place in the Hereafter an observable reality in this world, the Almighty selects certain personalities called Rusul to elucidate and explain the basic truths to their respective peoples. With the special help and assistance of the Almighty, they remove misconceptions that surround these concepts and vehemently say that if people do not accept these truths they shall be doomed in this world and in the Hereafter too. They give glad tidings of success both in this world and in the next to those who profess faith in them. People who knowingly deny these truths are punished in various degrees so that this whole episode can become an argument for the reward and punishment that is to take place on similar grounds in the Hereafter.

As a consequence of this fundamental premise what needs to be understood is that some directives of Islam are specific to the age of the Prophet Muhammad (sws) and his companions and cannot be extended to later periods. The reason for this is that a Muslim preacher cannot know whether a non-Muslim is knowingly denying the truth or not. Only the Almighty knows this. In the age of Rusul (the first period of history), He chose to reveal this judgement through His appointees, while in the second period of history He has not chosen to do so. Consequently, it is imperative that Muslims study the Qur’ān and the life of the Prophet (sws), which are replete with the details of this divine scheme in the proper perspective. They are not authorized to follow certain directives which are specific to their Prophet (sws).

ii. Attitude required from Muslims

Today, Muslims, in particular their religious orthodoxy, exhibit a very hostile and aggressive behaviour towards non-Muslims. This behaviour is very pronounced in countries where Muslims live as a minority. Jeffrey Lang, professor of Mathematics at the Kansas University who converted to Islam in the early eighties, vividly records this typical Muslim behavior of hostility and aggression in the following words:

‘I’m sure you know that it’s incumbent on Muslims living in the United states to work and struggle and, if necessary, to fight to establish an Islamic state here,’ said the dean of the Middle Eastern University, aware that tradition and scholarship were on his side.

‘My Idea of what makes a state Islamic might be very different from yours,’ I answered, ‘Do you, for example, feel that your country is an Islamic state?’

‘Of course it’s not perfect,’ he offered. ‘But we’re free to practice our faith and most of the Shari‘ah is enforced.’

‘But what if we’re already free to practice our rituals here and to influence and laws and government through democracy?’

‘But democracy recognises the will of the majority, while an Islamic state gives final authority to God as revealed in the Qur’ān and teachings of the Prophet!’

‘Might not the two converge in a society where the majority are committed to the viewpoint that God is the supreme authority and Muhammad is His Prophet? If the majority is not so committed, then what purpose is served by declaring an Islamic state or a state religion?’

‘What you’re advocating is secularism!’22

Similarly, while portraying the general Muslim reaction to apostates, Professor Lang records:

‘Do you or do you not agree that Salman Rushdie deserves the Qur’ānic punishment for apostasy?’

There was no way to side-step her question, for this was already her second attack. Almost half of the audience was non-Muslim, and the BBC cameras were catching every word. Didn’t she consider the impact of her words? How do you answer such a challenge without confirming others’ worst suspicions about Islam?

‘I already stated that he’s a Murtad (apostate).’

Please go away! What are you trying to accomplish? Didn’t you see the media’s reaction to Yusuf Islam? It was news in every Western country! ‘ride on the death train,’ ‘song of the killer man,’ ‘from flower child to terrorist,’ ran the headlines. They talked to old girlfriends, who said that he had always had it in him.

‘Does he or does he not deserve the Qur’ānic punishment of execution?’ she demanded.

The scarf forced him to concentrate on the wrath in her eyes, eyes that were sure to exact revenge for two centuries of anguish and humiliation at the hands of disbelieving imperialists. There was no stopping them. With a heavy heart, he sighed, ‘Yes. He deserves the Qur’ānic punishment for apostasy.’

‘Assalamu alaikum,’ she said. Then she turned from the microphone and headed down the aisle towards her seat.

‘Allahu akbar!’ they shouted. ‘Allahu akbar!’23

The foremost consequence of the premise delineated in this discourse is that the above mentioned attitude of Muslims towards non-Muslims should drastically change. Instead of showing an antagonistic behaviour towards them by threatening to subdue them, they should try to present the teachings of Islam in a lucid and articulate manner. They should think of ways and means to communicate the true message of Islam and refrain from policing and threatening non-Muslims. Like true preachers they should invest their time in thinking of ways and means to earnestly call people to the truth. Their preaching should have a humble tone in it and they should deal very affectionately and amicably with non-Muslims. Muslims should consider them as their potential addressees to whom they must present the teachings of Islam through character and good deeds. Being antagonistic and hostile to them is totally an uncalled for attitude. They should be clear it was only their Prophet (sws) and his noble companions who had the authority of forcibly subduing people who had denied the truth.

iii. Attitude required from non-Muslims

Today the non-Muslim world has severe apprehensions from the Muslim bloc. To them Muslims pose a great threat to their freedom and liberty. John L. Esposito, Loyola Professor of Middle East Studies at the College of the Holy Cross, writes:

According to many Western commentators, Islam and the West are on a collision course. Islam is a triple threat: political, demographic, and socio-religious. For some, the nature of the Islamic threat is intensified by the linkage of the political and the demographic. Thus Patrick Buchanan could write that while the west finds itself ‘negotiating for hostages with Shiite radicals who hate and detest us,’24 their Muslim brothers are populating Western countries. The Muslim threat is as global in nature as Muslims in Europe. The Soviet Union, and America proliferate and prosper. Other observers such as Charles Krauthammer, in the midst of the unraveling of the Soviet Union, spoke of a global Islamic unprising, a vision of Muslims in the heartland and on the periphery of the Muslim world rising up in revolt: a “new ‘arc of crisis’ … another great movement is going on as well, unnoticed but just as portentous: a global intifada”25.26

If the premise discussed in this article is found convincing, then the real threat to non-Muslims lies elsewhere: They must calmly contemplate on the fate of knowingly denying the truth.27

They must keep in mind the fate of their ancestors in the Prophetic times – a fate which they met by knowingly denying the truth. However, the sword of Democles does not hang over them in this world at least. Whether are they deliberately denying or not may not be known in this world, but surely in the Hereafter this reality shall be unveiled. Such an attitude would lead them to the gravest of penalties.

In recent times, many non-Muslim scholars have tried to pave the way for a meaningful dialogue between Muslims and non-Muslims. They have attempted to pinpoint the areas of mutual agreement. William Montgomery Watt, professor emeritus of Arabic and Islamic Studies at the Edinburgh university, writes:

The most important requirement is to admit that religious and moral systems other than Islam, even if they are far from perfect in Muslim eyes, may contain a large measure of truth. Muslims would, of course, continue to hold that Islam is religiously and morally superior, but they would also have to recognise that the adherent of any moral and religious system normally thinks that his system is superior to others. Since there is no generally accepted criterion to distinguish between the truth and falsehood of such systems, co-operation between the adherents of different systems requires that all should admit that the others are true at least up to a point, and it is usually unnecessary to specify in what respects each is true. In other words, Muslims are required to accept a pluralism of religions and moralities, and to see themselves as one community within a pluralistic world. A corollary would be that they might possibly have something to learn from some of the other systems.

It is in the application of moral values to social and political life that co-operation would appear to present fewest problems, at least intellectually. The relation of morality to religion is a difficult question because, though we may speak of Christian ethics and Buddhist ethics, morality is to a great extent independent of religion, and is based rather on the nature of human beings. At the same time, however, religion helps individuals to live more in accordance with their moral beliefs. The life of all human communities is based, among other values, on those implicit in the fifth to the ninth of the Ten Commandments in Exodus 20, which may be stated positively as respect for parents, for life, for marriage and for property, and truthfulness in public statements. Recognition of these values is also assumed as part of the basis of the United Nations and other global institutions, though there is still much to do before all international political activity is based on moral principles. Since these values are all upheld by the Sharī’ah, Muslims should have no difficulty in co-operating with others who are working for a fuller incorporation of moral values into the life of human beings at all levels.28

Professor Watt has rightly pointed out that ‘…morality is to a great extent independent of religion, and is based rather on the nature of human beings’. So if morality and moral values are the most common factor among various religions, then one great moral value is acknowledging the truth. Non-Muslims must continue to assess for themselves whether they are deliberately rejecting the truth by rejecting the Prophethood of Muhammad (sws) or whether they are sincerely convinced against belief in his Prophethood on the basis of arguments which seem sound to them.

1. The first person to highlight this feature specific to the age of Rusul was Hamīdu’l-Dīn Farāhī (d:1930), a Qur’ānic scholar from the subcontinent. However, it was his pupil, Amīn Ahsan Islāhī (d:1997) who refined and perfected this premise in his celebrated Qur’ānic Commentary. Subsequently, Javed Ahmad Ghamidi (b:1951) a student of Islāhī lent further precision to it in his work on hermeneutics. It is beyond the scope of this article to trace the development of this feature in the works of these scholars. Those who want to be aware of this historical development are advised to look up the following works of these authors.(i) Farāhī, Majmū‘ah Tafāsīr, 1st ed., (Lahore: Faran Foundation, 1991), pp. 465-477, (ii) Islāhī, Tadabbur-i-Qur’ān, 3rd ed., vol 8, (Lahore: Faran Foundation, 1985), p. 273  (iii) Ghāmidī, Usūl-u-Mabādī, 1st ed. (Lahore: Danish Sara, 2000) pp. 55-8

2. singular: Nabī

3. singular: Rasūl

4. Those who profess faith [in the Qur’ān], and those who are Jews and Christians and the Sabians, and who believe in God and the Last Day, and do righteousness deeds shall have their reward with their Lord: on them shall be no fear nor shall they grieve. (2:62)

A short explanation of this verse seems necessary here since some people argue on its basis that belief in the Prophethood of Muhammad (sws) is not a requirement of salvation. Suffice to say that the verse does not mention the Prophethood of Muhammad (sws) for the simple reason that it is not a basic requirement of salvation. It should be kept in mind that one of the obvious conditions for salvation in the Hereafter is that a person is not guilty of any such sin as entails eternal punishment in the Hereafter. We know from the Qur’ān that sins as intentional murder (4:93), polytheism (4:48), living a life of sin (2:81) and knowingly denying the Messengers of Allah (98:6) are sins which make a person worthy of everlasting punishment in the Hereafter. Consequently, just as a person who believes in Allah, in the last Day and does righteous deeds but is guilty of murdering a person shall be doomed in the Hereafter, a person who fulfils these three criteria but still knowingly denies a Messenger of Allah will not be saved in the Hereafter.

5. The word Rasūl, besides being used in the Qur’ān for a higher cadre in the category of Anbiyā, is also used in the literal sense. When used in the literal sense, it means a messenger and denotes Anbiyā (See for example:2:87) as well as Angels (See for example: 35:1).

6. This of course does not preclude Anbiyā who are not Rusul.

7. It is worthwhile to have a look at these stages in the preaching mission of a Rasūl. The various stages with reference to Noah (sws) are very compactly set forth in a brief sūrah of the Qur’ān. For an analysis of these phases, see Appendix 1.

8. In particular, a graphic summary of the fate of these nations is found in Sūrah Qamar. See Appendix 2.

9. It must be appreciated that if the message brought by Muhammad (sws) never reached a person or reached him in a distorted way, then on the Day of Judgement he would be given the allowance justice demands. So, if he is judged to have a legitimate excuse, he will not be held accountable for not professing faith in Muhammad (sws). In this case, he will only be held accountable on the basis of the three things mentioned in 2:62, quoted earlier on in this article.

10. See Appendix 3.

11. Ibn Manzūr, Lisān al-‘Arab, 1st ed., vol. 8, (Beirut: Dār Sādir, 1400 AH), p. 58.

12. One basic fact that needs to be understood about the Idolaters of Arabia was that in contrast to the People of the Book, who were the advocates of monotheism and who never admitted to be polytheists in spite of the fact that they had later become involved in polytheism, the Idolaters admittedly subscribed and testified to the creed of polytheism. Because of this very acceptance they were called the Mushrikīn (the adherents to the creed of shirk) by the Qur’ān. They strongly advocated that polytheism (shirk) was the very religion the Almighty had revealed and claimed that they were the strong adherents to this religion.

They say: ‘Allah has begotten a son!’ – Glory be to Him! He is Self-Sufficient! His are all things in the heavens and on earth! No warrant have you for this! Say you about Allah what you know not? (10:68)

It is not for such as join gods with Allah, to visit or maintain the mosques of Allah while they witness to disbelief against their own souls. The works of such bear no fruit: in Fire shall they dwell. (9:17)

13. They are addressed by the word: Kāfirūn (Disbelievers).

14. It is to be noted that the word Kāfir (disbeliever) is used for a person about who it can be ascertained that he has deliberately denied the truth.

15. In this case the last Rasūl, Muhammad (sws).

16. It is also to be noted that according to the Qur’ān, the death sentence can only to be given to a person who has killed someone or to someone who is guilty of spreading disorder in a society. No other person can be punished by death. The Qur’ān says:

He who killed a human being without the latter being guilty of killing another or of spreading disorder in the land should be looked upon as if he had killed mankind altogether, and he who saved a human being should be regarded as though he saved all mankind. (5:32)

This is the verdict of the Qur’ān. Hence, except for these two offences, an Islamic government has no right to administer the death sentence to a person. Apostasy, it is evident, does not come under these offences.

17. An obvious corollary of this premise is that the stance adopted by some scholars that all of Islam’s wars were in self-defence is incorrect. It is against this premise and belies established history. The following excerpts typically depict this stance:

There are no passages to be found in the Qur’ān that in any way enjoin forcible conversion, and many that on the contrary limit propagandist efforts to preaching and persuasion. It has further been maintained that no passage in the Qur’ān authorises unprovoked attacks on unbelievers, and that, in accordance with such teaching, all the wars of Muhammad were defensive.

Thomas Arnold, The Preaching of Islam, 4th ed., (Lahore: Ashraf  Publications, 1979), p. 451

Islam seized the sword in self-defence, and held it in self-defence, as it will ever do.

Ameer Ali, The Spirit of Islam, (Lahore: Sang-e-Meel Publications), p. 218

18. Today, apart from self-defence (which is an entirely different matter), the only legitimate reason for an Islamic State to launch Jihād is to curb oppression and persecution in any other country -- whether Muslim or non-Muslim. The Qur’ān says:

And why is it that you not fight in the cause of God and of those who, being weak, are ill-treated and oppressed -- men, women, and children, whose cry is: ‘Our Lord! Rescue us from this town, whose people are oppressors; and raise for us from Yourself one who will protect; and raise for us from Yourself one who will help!’ (4:75)

19. For verses of similar meaning, see 3:10, 63, 131; 4:56, 115; 7:41; 8:50; 9:63, etc.

20. Since the word Mushrik is used in this Hadīth, the directive it mentions does not even pertain to the People of the Book of the Prophet’s times.

21. This of course does not mean that Muslims should not strive for this cause. It only means that this is not their religious responsibility.

22. Jeffrey Lang, Struggling to Surrender, 2nd ed., (Beltsville: Amana Publications, 1995), p. 190

23. Jeffrey Lang, Struggling to Surrender, 2nd ed., (Beltsville: Amana Publications, 1995), p. 195

24. Patrick J. Buchanan, Rising Islam may Overwhelm the West, New Hampshire Sunday News, August 20, 1989.

25. Charles Krauthammar, The Crescent of Crisis: Global Inifada, Washington Post, October 29, 1991.

26. John L. Esposito, The Islamic Threat, Myth or Reality, 1st ed., (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), p. 175

27. It must be appreciated that if the message brought by Muhammad (sws) never reached a person or reached him in a distorted way, then on the Day of Judgement he would be given the allowance justice demands. So, if he is judged to have a legitimate excuse, he will not be held accountable for not professing faith in Muhammad (sws). In this case, he will only be held accountable on the basis of the three things mentioned in 2:62, quoted earlier on in this article.

28. W. Montgomery Watt, Islamic Fundamentalism and Modernity, 1st ed., (London: Routeledge, 1988), pp. 104-105.