Book
Name: Early Islam: Collected Articles
Compiler & Editor: William
Montgomery Watt
Publisher: Edinburgh University Press
Year: 1990
Introduction
The book Early Islam is a collection of
articles that basically revolve around the major issues in Islam, such as the
Prophet Muhammad (sws), the Qur’an and the division of Islam into various sects
and their histories. Montgomery Watt, in this book brings forward many ideas and
views of various Muslim historians on the above mentioned issues and concludes
each article with his own view and comment on the topic under discussion. In a
few articles, he defends the Islamic view on subjects such as authenticity of
the sirah material and the reliability of the material used to frame the
biography of the Prophet (sws) – at other places he raises important issues that
question the long held concepts and traditions reverenced in Islam.
The book is divided into two parts, with
the first part dealing mainly with the issues concerning the Qur’an and Muhammad
(sws) that have been raised by the Orientalist world. The second part deals with
Islamic thoughts on various issues – such as questions relating to God, Islamic
sects and the concept and history of caliphates – and the relations (that is
agreement and differences in thoughts) between the Muslims and the Christians.
Being famously known as one of the “Last Orientalist”
and his interest in the study of religion, William Montgomery Watt has
successfully managed to highlight the Modern Orientalist point of view on Islam
and has derived some important conclusions where the above issues are concerned.
Following is a brief summary of the
articles which comprise the book.
Condemnation of
the Jews of Banu Qurayzah: A Study of the Sources of the Sirah
This article is a response to the
statement made by Caetani about the responsibility for the slaughter of the men
of Banu Qurayzah falling on the Prophet (sws). To refute this statement and also
using this as an example, Watt has introduced the concept of isnad, that is, use
of a complete chain of authority to verify a certain tradition. Since the
earliest authorities might have ignored mentioning the sources, Montgomery
introduces a concept of “hypothetical reconstruction” which bases the earlier
links in the chain on what the scholars believed would have been true (justified
in most of the case), as opposed to what Dr. Joseph Schacht believes, which is
that the constructions are just inventions. Watt then uses the distinction
between scientific and informal transmissions to highlight the possibility of
fabrication in the traditions and to separate historical facts from legal
doctrines. He then concludes the article by defending the Islamic stance on
sirah, by saying that scholars must realize what the core argument is, before
raising questions on the biography of the Prophet (sws).
The Reliability of
Ibn Ishaq’s Sources
This article starts by pointing out the
weakness in the Western view of the collection of sirah by Ibn Ishaq, which are
that the origin of the chronology are unknown and secondly that the Western
Scholars have failed to distinguish between sirah and hadith. The author also
disagrees with the Western view of the Qur’an being the only source for the
biography of the Prophet. Watt then goes on to analyze the sources (materials)
used by Ibn Ishaq in writing the biography. First and foremost is the use of
sirah, which cannot be derived from the Qur’an, as opposed to what most Western
scholars believed. Use of the methodology of interlocking items in history,
along with the documented material such as the constitution of Madinah, have
been used to support that aspect of the biography which deals with Arab
genealogies and the pre-Islamic events. When the Qur’an has been used by Ibn
Ishaq, a distinction has been on the type of elaboration used, that is whether
it is a detailed version by the Biblical preachers or is related to the use of
occasion of revelation or Hadith of the Prophet (sws) relating to the
interpretation and elaborations in Qur’an. Apart from supporting the sources
used by Ibn Ishaq, Watt concludes the article by raising a few criticisms on the
work of Ibn Ishaq, but restating the fact that the mentioned biography is
acceptable on the grounds that the methods used are reliable and justified.
The Dating of the Qur’an: A Review of Richard Bell’s Theory
The dating of the Qur’an is summarized
by Richard Bell in three basic principles. Firstly, he believes that the units
of revelation were shorter in nature, that is, the long passages found in the
Qur’an are made up of these shorter passages which can be further divided into
three major types – sign passages, punishment passages and slogan passages.
The second principle (which is quite disputable) states that when the Prophet (sws)
combined the shorter passages, he made some revisions for the general good of
the Muslim community; to support this principle, Bell describes a few formal
ways to recognize the revisions. Lastly, the third major principle that is a key
factor in the dating of the Qur’an is the discovery of a few inscribed passages
of the Qur’an in the form of written material. Watt, after giving a brief
introduction, critically analyzes the three principles and raises questions such
as the length and the basis on which the longer passages are divided into
shorter ones, reasons and occasions of revisions and the degree of certainty in
all three cases.
Conversion in
Islam at the Time of the Prophet (sws)
The study of the earlier passages of the
Qur’an helps understand the concept of conversion. Initially, there was no
concept of strict conversion; the only concept that was highlighted was how the
person responded to the message of God that was revealed to the Prophet (sws).
This has been supported in the article by stating that it was not before the
second year after hijra that the followers of the Prophet (sws) formed a
separate identity and thus the terms “Islam” and “Muslim” came into use.
Thus the idea of conversion cannot be generalized. The only other fact remaining
to be considered is that in early times the theory of conversion relied more on
the external appearance of the person as compared to what his inner-self
believed. This then leads us to the issue of hypocrites as seen in the early
times, and it is then that the concept of conversion is defined as seen today –
that is a change of the inner beliefs of the person.
The Camel and the
Needle’s Eye
The famous parable of the camel passing
through a needle’s eye can be found in both, the Qur’an and the Gospel.
Interestingly scholars from both the traditions are caught in the interpretation
of the word “camel”. The two interpretations put forward by them are that of a
reference to either an animal or a rope. Those who hold the first of these
opinions concentrate on the metaphorical meaning of the use of the term animal
to show the greatness of God. On the other hand, those who believe in the second
interpretation, concentrate on the fact that rope and needle go together. Watt
ends this article by highlighting the occurrence of the similar interpretation
in the two religions, and briefly associates it to similar linguistic origin of
the root word kamelos.
God’s Caliph,
Qur’anic Interpretations and Umayyid Claims
The word khalifah has been interpreted
in various ways which has led to many complications, one of them being its
association to being a God’s deputy. This particular interpretation is said to
be used by the Umayyid Caliphs to strengthen their hold on the Muslim world but
Watt denies this on the basis of historical analysis which proves that the
Umayyid claim to the caliphate relied more on the Arab culture of blood-revenge.
Ibn Ishaq is of the view that the word refers to “the one who settles or
inhabits”; Zamakhshari and Tabari slightly alter the previous given definition
of the word khalifah to state that it was used for “Adam as a successor to the
angels.” With reference to the term being associated with the title for Abu Bakr,
many scholars believe that it has no relation to the usage in the Qur’an;
khalifah in this case meant “successor to the Messenger of God”.
Christianity
criticized in the Qur’an
The enmity between the Muslims and the
Christians is believed to have started after the conquest of Makkah when Muslims
started expanding their empire and were met with Christian opposition. The start
of the hostility gave rise to criticisms – many of which were actually directed
to the heretic Christians rather than the Orthodox Christians. One of the major
criticisms that have been raised is that Christians believe in three Gods – a
concept that is mistakenly associated with the Orthodox Church which officially
claims to believe in one God only. Secondly, the Qur’an talks of the “Virgin
Birth” as a miracle, but in recent times it is being said that if scientifically
birth from a virgin is impossible then does this disprove the divinity of Jesus
(sws)? This general argument has been wrongly associated with the Qur’an; thus
once again the Qur’an is said to be criticizing Christians when in reality it is
just a matter of interpretation.
Two Interesting
Christian-Arab Usages
The article’s basic emphasis is that
there was a specific linguistic tradition found in the Christian-Arab period,
which is believed to have influenced the language of the Qur’an. The argument is
supported by giving the example of the word rijs as used and interpreted in the
Qur’an. One interpretation of the word is with reference to the filth of the
devil; several others interpret it as a form of anger or wrath or a severe
punishment from God. In these different interpretations, a slight transformation
from the pre-Islamic meaning is seen, from an internal feeling of anger to an
outward expression of anger. This specific interpretation is often related to
the meaning of the word as seen before the times of Muhammad (sws) and the
meaning is often said to be formed under Christian influence.
Early Development
of the Muslim Attitude to the Bible
When looking at the development of the
Muslim attitude to the Bible, first consideration is given to what is actually
stated in the Qur’an. According to Watt, the Qur’an states four major points:
(1) there have been previous revelations, (2) the arrival of Muhammad (sws) was
foretold in the Bible, (3) Jews have hidden some of the revelations from their
book, and (4) Jews have also been accused of falsifying their revelations. Watt
then divides the article in various parts: the first deals with the fact that
the Muslims were using the falsification and hiding of certain verses to
strengthen their belief that Muhammad (sws) was the last Prophet. The second
phase is marked by strong hatred for the people of the other Books, and this is
the phase where great intellectual activity started and there was a closer
contact between the two schools of intellectuals. The last phase of the
development, as put forward by Watt, is when the discussions between Muslims and
the people of the other Books stopped due to the beliefs being contradictory in
nature.
Some Muslim
Discussions of Anthropomorphism
Anthropomorphism is the attribution of
human motivation, characteristics, or behaviour to inanimate objects, animals,
or natural phenomena.
This section deals with the thoughts of different schools on the attributes on
God and their association with the physical attributes found in men. The initial
step of bringing light to this aspect of academics can be attributed to the
doctrine of balkafiyya which emphasizes on the use of pictures to understand
religious concepts such as God. Later schools of thought such as the
Mu‘tazalites and the Ash‘arites brought about slight changes in the association,
that is, they said that the physical attributes such as God has hands and eyes,
does not mean that He has these characteristics physically, but is a
metaphorical use to emphasize the power and qualities of God. The article then
explains the evolution of the basic doctrine with time and with the formation of
a new school of thought that is in reality an offshoot of the original Ash‘arite
school of thought.
Created in His
Image: A Study in Islamic Theology
This piece of writing focuses on the
differences in the school of Muslim thought who believe in the “absolute
otherness of God” and those who believe that there is an “affinity between God
and man.” The basic line of argument was a statement given by a Muslim from a
Jewish background who said that “God created Adam in his image.” There are four
stages found in the interpretation of the above statement by the
Traditionalists, many of whom believed that the use of the word “his” referred
to Adam and not God; there is only one group of Traditionalists who believe the
contrary, that is, “his” referred to God and not Adam. Watt, towards the end of
the article, presents various arguments for and against the views mentioned
above, and also raises the question of anthropomorphism in relation to the above
stated interpretations of the statement of the relation between God and man.
The Logical Basis
of early Kalam
This article details with ways and
approaches to understand the concept of knowledge, its relation with reality and
the function of the knower in the way that he perceives the acquired knowledge.
Many definitions can be found of the term knowledge. Furthermore, the article
explains the various forms of sensible knowledge as compared to reflective
knowledge (there are four kinds of reflective knowledge – use of analogy and
reasoning, experience (tajariba) and customs (adab), revelation (sharah) and
inspiration (ilham));
wide transmission (tawatur) as opposed to individual transmission (ahad) and
far-spread (mustafid).
The article then ends with a small section on the theory of legal knowledge
which depends on the Qur’an, the Sunnah, the Consensus and the Analogy.
The Origin of the
Islamic Doctrine of Acquisition
The basic idea of this article is that
“it is God who ‘creates’ the acts of man, whereas man merely ‘acquires’ them.”
The Jahmite view is that it is in fact God who does all the actions. Dirar, on
the other hand, believes that “man has his own share in human acts.” Hisham Ibn
Hakam believes that acts are created by God but adds a few conditions such as
cause, conscious willing and the soundness of the act to create links between
what a person does and what God wants him to do. Shahham brings in concepts that
highlight the actions directed by God as some external power and associates man
with a mind and a conscious, and thus distinguishes between the voluntary and
the involuntary acts of the humans. al-Najjar and Muhammad Ibn ‘I%sa are of the
view that humans have been given the power to acquire (kasb) but they cannot
create (khalq). This is further explained by stating that the just like faith,
God cannot create a person’s need for acquisition; this is something that the
person has to do himself. Later scholars built up on the above views, sometimes
by combining two or more schools of thought together; other times by expanding
and elaborating on one chief belief only.
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