Dr Saad Saleem
Throughout history, countless creatures
have emerged and become extinct, following the intricate
designs of evolution. Many religious texts, such as the Bible
and Quran, suggest that God has had a direct hand in these
events, initiating changes in biodiversity according to His
divine wisdom and plan for the earth (Genesis 1:24-25, Quran
2:30). From this viewpoint, God's creative power has generated
a multitude of organisms, each uniquely equipped to survive
within specific environmental contexts [1].
The Emergence of Modern Humans
Fossil evidence indicates that anatomically
modern humans, Homo sapiens, first appeared in Africa around
200,000-300,000 years ago [2]. Over time, these early humans
migrated to different parts of the globe, using primitive
tools and their evolving intellects to survive in diverse
environments [3].
Figure
1:
Migration of early humans
Coexistence of Humans with Other Hominid
Species
For tens of thousands of years, Homo
sapiens lived alongside other hominid species, such as the
Neanderthals and Denisovans [4]. Archaeological evidence shows
that these hominids interacted, competed, and even interbred,
contributing to the genetic diversity of modern humans [5].
Early Human Culture: Communication,
Religion, and Violence
Historical records and archaeological
findings reveal early humans' capacity for complex
communication, religious thought, and interpersonal violence.
Cave paintings, for instance, testify to an early form of
symbolic communication, indicating the capacity for abstract
thinking [6]. Similarly, burial rituals and sacred artifacts
suggest a primitive understanding of spirituality or religion
[7]. Evidence of skeletal trauma and weapon-inflicted injuries
reveal a propensity for violence, presumably related to
conflicts over resources or territory [8].
Human Dietary Habits
Stable isotope analysis suggests that early
humans primarily consumed meat, likely procured through
hunting and scavenging [9]. Unlike other carnivores, humans
appeared to be selective hunters based on isotopic analysis,
targeting herbivores with high fat to protein ratios, such as
mammoths and bison [10].
The Extinction of Other Hominid Species
Around 40,000 years ago, other hominid
species, including Neanderthals and Denisovans, disappeared
from the fossil record, leaving Homo sapiens as the sole
survivors [11]. While the reasons behind this are not fully
understood, competition with Homo sapiens and environmental
changes are among the leading theories [12].
The Arrival of Prophet Adam
About 10,000 years ago, the Agricultural
Revolution began, fundamentally altering human society. With
the advent of farming, humans were able to create stable
communities, culminating in the first known cities. The city
of Jericho is often considered the first known city, built
around 9,000 BCE in the Levant region and Çatalhöyük in
modern-day Turkey is considered one of the earliest urban
settlements, existing from approximately 7100 BC to 5700 BC
[13]. The advent of agriculture and settlements aligns with
religious narratives, particularly in Islam and Christianity,
about the arrival of Prophet Adam, considered the first true
human being.
This alignment is indicated in Surah
Baqarah of the Quran (2:30) and Genesis of the Bible (Genesis
4:2). God elevated humans to the status of "Khalifa" or
stewards of Earth (Quran 2:30). Angels questioned this
promotion, referencing humans' tendency towards mischief and
bloodshed, an observation possible only if humans had already
existed on Earth before Prophet Adam. This also correlates
with the development of language, as all known human language
families seem to evolve from a common ancestor, a concept
known as the Proto-World hypothesis [14].
Prophet Adam's Descendants and Other Humans
There were anatomically similar human
beings before Prophet Adam, and he probably coexisted with
them. The survival of Prophet Adam's descendants can be
attributed to their superior technology, communication skills
due to developed language, and possibly intermarriage with
existing humans. Other human populations may have also
perished due to environmental changes, allowing the
descendants of Prophet Adam to proliferate [15].
Initial human settlements were primarily in
the Middle East and North Africa, with humans gradually
spreading outwards. Before the rise of major civilizations,
such as the Sumerians and Egyptians, there was a period of
disruption likely linked to the story of the Great Flood in
the Bible (Genesis 7:17-24) and Quran (Surah Hud 11:25-48),
during the time of Prophet Noah in Middle East [16].
The Post-Flood Dispersion of Prophet Noah's
Descendants
Following the Great Flood, the descendants
of Prophet Noah's sons—Ham, Shem, and Japheth—spread across
the world. Various civilisations emerged from their lineages,
with Ham's descendants founding the African civilisations,
Shem's descendants leading to the Middle Eastern
civilisations, and Japheth's descendants creating the European
and some Asian civilisations (Genesis 10:1-32) [17].
Figure 2: Probable migrations from the
children of Shem (Middle East) and Japheth (Eurassian Steppe)
after the great flood
The Age of Abrahamic Prophets
Around 2000 BC, the Abrahamic period began.
In this period, there was a shift from individual to national
prophethood, which was most evident in the rise and fall of
the Israelites, who were given the responsibility as a nation
to communicate God's message to surrounding nations [18]. Mega
empires such as the Assyrian, Babylonian, Persian, Greek and
Roman Empires witnessed multiple rises and falls of
Israelites, which were largely contingent on their
relationship with God.
After Jesus, the Israelites lost their
sovereignty, and the Ishmaelites rose to prominence with the
advent of Prophet Muhammad about 1400 years ago [19]. Similar
to the Israelites, the Ishmaelites have seen multiple rises
and falls and are currently subdued by other nations [20].
The Modern Era: The Age of Gog and Magog
The modern era, according to biblical
interpretation, can be considered the age of the descendants
of Japheth, specifically Gog and Magog (Ezekiel 38-39,
Revelation 20:7-10). Their release, as described in the Quran
(Surah Al-Kahf 18:94-99) and the Bible, will eventually result
in a significant conflict, culminating in the Day of Judgment.
This interpretation aligns with the historical emergence of
the Mongols, Turks, and European colonizers, suggesting a
continuing process of their release [21].
References
[1] The Bible. Genesis 1:24-25. The Quran.
Surah Baqarah 2:30.
[2] Hublin, J. J., & Roebroeks, W. (2009).
Ebb and flow or regional extinctions? On the character of
Neandertal occupation of northern environments. Comptes Rendus
Palevol, 8(5), 503-509.
[3] Stringer, C. (2016). The origin and
evolution of Homo sapiens. Philosophical Transactions of the
Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 371(1698).
[4] Higham, T., et al. (2014). The timing
and spatiotemporal patterning of Neanderthal disappearance.
Nature, 512(7514), 306-309.
[5] Prüfer, K., et al. (2014). The complete
genome sequence of a Neanderthal from the Altai Mountains.
Nature, 505(7481), 43-49.
[6] Zaidner, Y., et al. (2018). An Early
Aurignacian arrival in southwestern Europe. Nature Ecology &
Evolution, 2(5), 873-881.
[7] Pearson, M. P. (1999). The archaeology
of death and burial. Sutton Publishing.
[8] Walker, P. L. (2001). A
bioarchaeological perspective on the history of violence.
Annual Review of Anthropology, 30(1), 573-596.
[9] Richards, M. P., & Trinkaus, E. (2009).
Isotopic evidence for the diets of European Neanderthals and
early modern humans. Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences, 106(38), 16034-16039.
[10] Bocherens, H., et al. (2015). Isotopic
insight on paleodiet of extinct Pleistocene megafaunal
Xenarthrans from Argentina. Gondwana Research, 27(3),
1314-1322.
[11] Bocquet-Appel, J. P., & Degioanni, A.
(2013). Neanderthal demographic estimates. Current
Anthropology, 54(S8), S202-S213.
[12] Stewart, J. R., & Stringer, C. B.
(2012). Human evolution out of Africa: the role of refugia and
climate change. Science, 335(6074), 1317-1321.
[13] Meece, S. K. (2006). A bird’s eye view
of Çatalhöyük. Anatolian Studies, 56, 1-21.
[14] Ruhlen, M. (1994). On the Origin of
Languages: Studies in Linguistic Taxonomy. Stanford University
Press.
[15] Relethford, J. H. (2001). Genetics and
the Search for Modern Human Origins. Wiley-Liss.
[16] Bible. Genesis 7:17-24. Quran. Surah
Hud 11:25-48.
[17] Bible. Genesis 10:1-32.
[18] Azeemi, S. S. (2005). Muraqaba: The
Art and Science of Sufi Meditation. Houston: Plato.
[19] Armstrong, K. (1992). Muhammad: A
Biography of the Prophet. San Francisco: Harper.
[20] Lewis, B. (2002). What Went Wrong?
Western Impact and Middle Eastern Response. Oxford University
Press. [21] Bible. Ezekiel 38-39, Revelation 20:7-10. Quran.
Surah Al-Kahf 18:94-99.
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